Antifungal compound process

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a process for preparing compound 1 that is useful as an antifungal agent. In particular, the invention seeks to provide new methodology for preparing compound 1 and substituted derivatives thereof.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/955,599 filed Mar. 19, 2014, which is expressly incorporated by reference herein.

STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT

This invention was created in the performance of a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement with the National Institutes of Health, an Agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The Government of the United States has certain rights in this invention.

The present invention relates to a process for preparing compound 1 that is useful as an antifungal agent. In particular, the invention seeks to provide a new methodology for preparing compound 1 and substituted derivatives thereof.

BACKGROUND

Living organisms have developed tightly regulated processes that specifically import metals, transport them to intracellular storage sites and ultimately transport them to sites of use. One of the most important functions of metals such as zinc and iron in biological systems is to enable the activity of metalloenzymes. Metalloenzymes are enzymes that incorporate metal ions into the enzyme active site and utilize the metal as a part of the catalytic process. More than one-third of all characterized enzymes are metalloenzymes.

The function of metalloenzymes is highly dependent on the presence of the metal ion in the active site of the enzyme. It is well recognized that agents which bind to and inactivate the active site metal ion dramatically decrease the activity of the enzyme. Nature employs this same strategy to decrease the activity of certain metalloenzymes during periods in which the enzymatic activity is undesirable. For example, the protein TIMP (tissue inhibitor of metalloproteases) binds to the zinc ion in the active site of various matrix metalloprotease enzymes and thereby arrests the enzymatic activity. The pharmaceutical industry has used the same strategy in the design of therapeutic agents. For example, the azole antifungal agents fluconazole and voriconazole contain a 1-(1,2,4-triazole) group that binds to the heme iron present in the active site of the target enzyme lanosterol demethylase and thereby inactivates the enzyme.

In the design of clinically safe and effective metalloenzyme inhibitors, use of the most appropriate metal-binding group for the particular target and clinical indication is critical. If a weakly binding metal-binding group is utilized, potency may be suboptimal. On the other hand, if a very tightly binding metal-binding group is utilized, selectivity for the target enzyme versus related metalloenzymes may be suboptimal. The lack of optimal selectivity can be a cause for clinical toxicity due to unintended inhibition of these off-target metalloenzymes. One example of such clinical toxicity is the unintended inhibition of human drug metabolizing enzymes such as CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP3A4 by the currently-available azole antifungal agents such as fluconazole and voriconazole. It is believed that this off-target inhibition is caused primarily by the indiscriminate binding of the currently utilized 1-(1,2,4-triazole) to iron in the active site of CYP2C9, CYP2C19 and CYP3A4. Another example of this is the joint pain that has been observed in many clinical trials of matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors. This toxicity is considered to be related to inhibition of off-target metalloenzymes due to indiscriminate binding of the hydroxamic acid group to zinc in the off-target active sites.

Therefore, the search for metal-binding groups that can achieve a better balance of potency and selectivity remains an important goal and would be significant in the realization of therapeutic agents and methods to address currently unmet needs in treating and preventing diseases, disorders and symptoms thereof. Similarly, methods of synthesizing such therapeutic agents on the laboratory and, ultimately, commercial scale is needed. Addition of metal-based nucleophiles (Zn, Zr, Ce, Ti, Mg, Mn, Li) to azole-methyl substituted ketones have been effected in the synthesis of voriconazole (M. Butters, Org. Process Res. Dev. 2001, 5, 28-36). The nucleophile in these examples was an ethyl-pyrimidine substrate. Similarly, optically active azole-methyl epoxide has been prepared as precursor electrophile toward the synthesis of ravuconazole (A. Tsuruoka, Chem. Pharm. Bull. 1998, 46, 623-630). Despite this, the development of methodology with improved efficiency and selectivity is desirable.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention is directed toward methods of synthesis of 1 or 1a. The methods can comprise the compounds herein. A first aspect of the invention relates to a process for preparing a compound of formula 1 or 1a, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, complex or prodrug thereof.

The compounds herein include those wherein the compound is identified as attaining affinity, at least in part, for a metalloenzyme by formation of one or more of the following types of chemical interactions or bonds to a metal: sigma bonds, covalent bonds, coordinate-covalent bonds, ionic bonds, pi bonds, delta bonds, or backbonding interactions.

Methods for assessing metal-ligand binding interactions are known in the art as exemplified in references including, for example, “Principles of Bioinorganic Chemistry” by Lippard and Berg, University Science Books, (1994); “Mechanisms of Inorganic Reactions” by Basolo and Pearson John Wiley & Sons Inc; 2nd edition (September 1967); “Biological Inorganic Chemistry” by Ivano Bertini, Harry Gray, Ed Stiefel, Joan Valentine, University Science Books (2007); Xue et al. “Nature Chemical Biology”, vol. 4, no. 2, 107-109 (2008).

In the following aspects, reference is made to the schemes and compounds herein, including the reagents and reaction conditions delineated herein. Other aspects include any of the compounds, reagents, transformations or methods thereof delineated in the examples herein (in whole or in part), including as embodiments with single elements (e.g., compounds or transformations) or embodiments including multiple elements (e.g., compounds or transformations).

In one aspect, the invention provides a process to prepare morpholine amide 2b: comprising amidation of ester 2:

to provide 2b; wherein each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process to prepare ketone 3:

comprising aryl substitution of morpholine amide 2b:

to provide ketone 3;

wherein each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process to prepare a compound of formula II:

comprising epoxide opening of a compound of formula I:

to provide a compound of formula II;

wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process to prepare amino alcohol 1-6 or 1-7, or a mixture thereof:

comprising arylation of pyridine 4b or 4c, or a mixture thereof:

to provide compound 1-6 or 1-7, or a mixture thereof;

wherein each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In one embodiment, the invention provides a process to prepare a compound of formula IV:

comprising olefination of a compound of formula III:

to provide a compound of formula IV;

wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a process to prepare a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof:

comprising dihydroxylation of a compound of formula IV:

to provide a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof;

wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a process to prepare a compound of formula VI or VIa, or a mixture thereof:

comprising activation of the primary alcohol of a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof:

to a provide a compound of formula VI or VIa, or a mixture thereof; wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl; and each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen. In another embodiment, the invention provides a process to prepare a compound of formula VII or VIIa, or a mixture thereof:

comprising ring closure of a compound of formula VI or VIa, or a mixture thereof:

to provide a compound of formula VII or VIIa, or a mixture thereof; wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl; and each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen.

In another embodiment, Y from any embodiments presented herein is mesylate, tosylate, benzoate, acetate, chloro, or bromo.

In another embodiment, Y from any embodiments presented herein is mesylate or tosylate.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a process of enriching the enantiomeric purity of an enantiomeric compound mixture, comprising:

(i) crystallizing said enantiomeric compound mixture with a chiral acid in a suitable solvent or solvent mixture, wherein:

-   -   the suitable solvent or solvent mixture is selected from         acetonitrile, isopropanol, ethanol, water, methanol, or         combinations thereof; and     -   the enantiomeric compound mixture comprises

-   -   R₁ is halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl,         —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted         alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;

(ii) isolating the enantio-enriched chiral salt mixture;

(iii) reslurrying the enantio-enriched chiral salt mixture in a slurrying solvent or slurrying solvent mixture; and

(iv) free-basing the enantio-enriched chiral salt mixture to provide the enantio-enriched compound mixture.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a process of enriching the enantiomeric purity of an enantiomeric compound mixture, comprising:

(i) crystallizing said enantiomeric compound mixture with a chiral acid in a suitable solvent or solvent mixture, wherein:

-   -   the suitable solvent or solvent mixture is selected from         acetonitrile, isopropanol, ethanol, water, methanol, or         combinations thereof; and     -   the enantiomeric compound mixture comprises

-   -   R₁ is halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl,         —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted         alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;     -   (ii) isolating the enantio-enriched chiral salt mixture; and     -   (iii) free-basing the enantio-enriched chiral salt mixture to         provide the enantio-enriched compound mixture.

In another aspect, the chiral acid from any embodiment presented herein is selected from the group consisting of tartaric acid, di-benzoyltartaric acid, malic acid, camphoric acid, camphorsulfonic acid, ascorbic acid, and di-p-toluoyltartaric acid;

In another aspect, the suitable solvent or solvent mixture from any embodiments presented herein is 1-propanol, 1-butanol, ethyl acetate, tetrahydrofuran, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, toluene, methyl tert-butylether, diethyl ether, dichloromethane, 1,4-dioxane, 1,2-dimethoxyethane, isopropyl acetate, heptane, hexane, cyclohexane, or octane, or combinations thereof.

In another aspect, the slurrying solvent or slurrying solvent mixture from any embodiments presented herein is 1-propanol, 1-butanol, ethyl acetate, tetrahydrofuran, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, toluene, methyl tert-butylether, diethyl ether, dichloromethane, 1,4-dioxane, 1,2-dimethoxyethane, isopropyl acetate, heptane, hexane, cyclohexane, or octane, or combinations thereof.

In another aspect, the suitable solvent or solvent mixture from any embodiments presented herein is a) acetonitrile or b) a mixture of acetonitrile and methanol. Alternatively, another aspect is where the mixture of acetonitrile and methanol comprises 80-90% acetonitrile and 10-20% methanol.

In another aspect, the slurrying solvent or slurrying solvent mixture from any embodiments presented herein is a) acetonitrile or b) a mixture of acetonitrile and methanol. Alternatively, another aspect is where the mixture of acetonitrile and methanol comprises 80-90% acetonitrile and 10-20% methanol.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process comprising reacting morpholine amide 2b:

wherein M is Mg or MgX; and X is halogen;

-   -   R₁ is halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl,         —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted         alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;         to provide compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof:

In another aspect, the invention provides a process comprising reacting morpholine amide 2b:

wherein M is Mg or MgX, AlX₂; and X is halogen, alkyl or aryl;

-   -   R₁ is halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl,         —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted         alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;         to provide compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof:

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise amidation of ester 2:

to provide morpholine amide 2b:

wherein each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise reacting ester 2:

with morpholine to provide morpholine amide 2b:

wherein each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process to prepare compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof:

comprising converting a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof:

to compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof;

wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl. In another aspect, the invention provides a process to prepare compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof:

comprising converting a compound of formula 3:

to compound 1 or 1a; wherein R₁ is halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise reacting a compound of formula IV:

under asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions to provide a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof:

wherein the asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions comprise:

(i) AD-mix alpha or AD-mix beta; or

(ii) a first oxidant in catalytic amount, a second oxidant in stoichiometric amount, a base, and a chiral ligand; and

wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise a process, wherein:

(i) the first oxidant in catalytic amount is OsO₄ or K₂OsO₂(OH)₄;

(ii) the second oxidant in stoichiometric amount is K₃Fe(CN)₆ or N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide;

(iii) the base is NaHCO₃, Na₂CO₃, Cs₂CO₃, or K₂CO₃; and

(iv) the chiral ligand is selected from the group consisting of (DHQ)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂AQN, (DHQ)₂AQN, (DHQD)₂PYR, and (DHQ)₂PYR.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise a process, wherein the chiral ligand is selected from the group consisting of (DHQ)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂AQN, and (DHQD)₂PYR.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise the addition of MeSO₂NH₂.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise a process comprising converting a compound of formula VI or VIa, or a mixture thereof:

to a compound of formula VII or VIIa, or a mixture thereof:

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; and

wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise a process comprising:

(i) activating the primary alcohol of 2-6a or 2-6c,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula 2-7a or 2-7c,

or a mixture thereof;

-   -   wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted         alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl,         —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted         aryl, or halogen;

(ii) ring-closing of a compound of 2-7a or 2-7c, or

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide 5* or 5b*,

or a mixture thereof;

(iii) ring-opening epoxide 5* or 5b*,

or a mixture thereof, to provide amino-alcohol 1-6* or 1-7*,

or a mixture thereof; and

(iv) forming the tetrazole of amino-alcohol 1-6* or 1-7*,

or a mixture thereof, to provide compound 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof.

In another aspect, Y in any of the embodiments presented herein may be mesylate or tosylate.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise a process comprising:

(i) activating the primary alcohol 2-6b or 2-6d,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula 2-7b or 2-7d,

or a mixture thereof;

(ii) ring-closing a compound of 2-7b or 2-7d,

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide 4*or 4c*,

or a mixture thereof;

(iii) ring-opening epoxide 4*or 4c*,

or a mixture thereof, to provide amino-alcohol 4b or 4c,

or a mixture thereof;

(iv) arylating amino-alcohol 4b or 4c,

or a mixture thereof, to provide aryl-pyridine 1-6* or 1-7*,

or a mixture thereof; and

(v) forming the tetrazole of amino-alcohol 1-6* or 1-7*,

or a mixture thereof, to provide compound 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof;

-   -   wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted         alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl,         —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted         aryl, or halogen; and     -   each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl,         —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted         aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl,         —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl,         —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted         aryl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a compound of formula IV:

wherein R₂ is

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl. In another aspect, the invention provides compound of formula VI* or VIa*, or a mixture thereof:

wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;

each Y₁ is independently OH, —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted heterocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise repeating the enantio-enrichment step(s) until desired level of enantio-enrichment is attained.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process to prepare a compound of formula IX or IXa, or a mixture thereof, comprising:

-   -   (i) combining compound 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof, a sulfonic acid

and a crystallization solvent or crystallization solvent mixture;

-   -   (ii) diluting the mixture from step (i) with a crystallization         co-solvent or crystallization co-solvent mixture; and     -   (iii)isolating a compound of formula IX or IXa,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each Z is independently aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, or substituted alkyl.

In another aspect, Z from any of the embodiments presented herein is phenyl, p-tolyl, methyl, or ethyl.

In another aspect, the crystalization solvent or crystallization solvent mixture from any of the embodiments presented herein is ethyl acetate, isopropyl acetate, ethanol, methanol, or acetonitrile, or combinations thereof.

In another aspect, the crystallization co-solvent or crystallization co-solvent mixture from any of the embodiments presented herein is pentane, methyl t-butylether, hexane, heptane, or toluene, or combinations thereof.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise a process comprising:

-   -   (i) combining compound 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof, a sulfonic acid

and a crystallization solvent or crystallization solvent mixture;

-   -   (ii) diluting the mixture from step (i) with a crystallization         co-solvent or crystallization co-solvent mixture; and     -   (iii)isolating a compound of formula IX or IXa, or a mixture         thereof;

wherein Z is aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, or substituted alkyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise:

-   -   (i) combining compound 13 or 13a,

a mixture thereof, a sulfonic acid

and a crystallization solvent or crystallization solvent mixture;

-   -   (ii) diluting the mixture from step (i) with a crystallization         co-solvent or crystallization co-solvent mixture; and     -   (iii)isolating a compound of formula X or Xa,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein Z is aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, or substituted alkyl;

each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; and

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro.

In another aspect, the invention provides a compound of formula XI:

wherein o is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

R₅ is H or fluoro;

R₆ is H or fluoro;

R₁₁ is halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process for preparing morpholine 7:

comprising amidation of ester 6:

to provide 7; wherein each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; and

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process for preparing ketone 8:

comprising aryl substitution of morpholine amide 7:

to provide ketone 8; wherein each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; and

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process for preparing a compound of formula XII:

comprising epoxide opening of a compound of formula I:

to provide a compound of formula XIII;

wherein each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

R₇ is N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉;

each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; and

each R₁₀ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process for preparing amino alcohol 20 or 20a, or a mixture thereof:

comprising arylation of pyridine 11 or 11a, or a mixture thereof:

to provide compound 20 or 20a, or a mixture thereof; wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉; and

each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process for preparing compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof:

comprising converting morpholine amide 7:

to compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof;

-   -   wherein R₁ is halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl,         —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl,         —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted         alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; and

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process comprising amidation of ester 6:

to provide morpholine amide 7:

wherein each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; and

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process comprising reacting ester 6:

with morpholine to provide morpholine amide 7:

wherein each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; and

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process to prepare compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof:

comprising converting a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

to compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof; wherein o is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process comprising reacting a compound of formula XI:

under asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions to provide a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

wherein the asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions comprise:

(i) AD-mix alpha or AD-mix beta; or

(ii) a first oxidant in catalytic amount, a second oxidant in stoichiometric amount, a base, and a chiral ligand; and

o is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process comprising converting a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

to a compound of formula XIX or XIXa, or a mixture thereof:

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process comprising:

(i) activating the primary alcohol of XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof;

(ii) ring-closing of a compound of XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof;

(iii) ring-opening epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide aryl-pyridine 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof; and

(iv) forming the tetrazole of amino-alcohol aryl-pyridine 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof, to provide compound 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen (preferably mesylate or tosylate);

each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉;

each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process comprising:

(i) activating the primary alcohol of XVII or XVIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula XIX or XIXa,

or a mixture thereof;

(ii) ring-closing a compound of XIX or XIXa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof;

(iii) ring-opening epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide alcohol XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof;

(iv) arylating alcohol XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide aryl-pyridine 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof; and

(v) forming the tetrazole of aryl-pyridine 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof, to provide compound 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen (preferably mesylate or tosylate);

each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉;

each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, the invention provides a process to prepare a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, the method comprising converting a compound of formula XI,

to a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa:

wherein each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise reacting a compound of formula XI:

under asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions to provide a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

wherein the asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions comprise:

(i) AD-mix alpha or AD-mix beta; or

(ii) a first oxidant in catalytic amount, a second oxidant in stoichiometric amount, a base, and a chiral ligand; and

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; and

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may comprise converting a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

to provide a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; and

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may further comprise:

(i) arylating olefin XI,

to provide aryl-pyridine XXV,

(ii) dihydroxylating aryl-pyridine XXV,

to provide a compound of formula XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof;

(iii) activating the primary alcohol of XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof;

(iv) ring-closing of a compound of XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide XX or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen;

each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may further comprise:

(i) dihydroxylating a compound of formula XI,

to provide a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa

or a mixture thereof;

(ii) arylating a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to afford a compound of formula XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof;

(iii) activating the primary alcohol of XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof;

(iv) ring-closing of a compound of XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen;

each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may further comprise:

(i) dihydroxylating a compound of formula XI,

to provide a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa,

or a mixture thereof;

(ii) activating the primary alcohol of a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa,

or a mixture thereof to afford a compound of formula XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof;

(iii) ring-closing of a compound of formula XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to afford a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof; and

(iv) arylating a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof to afford a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen;

each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may further comprise:

(i) ring-opening epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to afford 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉;

each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may further comprise:

(i) ring-opening epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to afford a compound of formula XXIII or XXIIIa

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉;

each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may further comprise:

(i) forming the tetrazole of a compound of 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof, to afford 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉;

each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may further comprise:

(i) arylating a compound of formula of XXIII or XXIIIa

or a mixture thereof to afford a compound of formula 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉;

each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl;

each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In another aspect, any of the embodiments presented herein may further comprise:

(i) forming the tetrazole of a compound of formula 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof to afford 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof;

wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5;

each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy;

each R₄ is independently H or halo;

each R₅ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₆ is independently H or fluoro;

each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉;

each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; and

each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.

In other aspects, the invention provides a compound of any of the formulae herein, wherein the compound inhibits (or is identified to inhibit) lanosterol demethylase (CYP51).

In another aspect, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of any formulae herein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In other aspects, the invention provides a method of modulating metalloenzyme activity in a subject, comprising contacting the subject with a compound of any formulae herein, in an amount and under conditions sufficient to modulate metalloenzyme activity.

In one aspect, the invention provides a method of treating a subject suffering from or susceptible to a metalloenzyme-related disorder or disease, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound or pharmaceutical composition of any formulae herein.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of treating a subject suffering from or susceptible to a metalloenzyme-related disorder or disease, wherein the subject has been identified as in need of treatment for a metalloenzyme-related disorder or disease, comprising administering to said subject in need thereof, an effective amount of a compound or pharmaceutical composition of any formulae herein, such that said subject is treated for said disorder.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of treating a subject suffering from or susceptible to a metalloenzyme-mediated disorder or disease, wherein the subject has been identified as in need of treatment for a metalloenzyme-mediated disorder or disease, comprising administering to said subject in need thereof, an effective amount of a compound or pharmaceutical composition of any formulae herein, such that metalloenzyme activity in said subject is modulated (e.g., down regulated, inhibited). In another aspect, the compounds delineated herein preferentially target cancer cells over nontransformed cells.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION Definitions

The term “chiral” refers to molecules which have the property of non-superimposability of the mirror image partner, while the term “achiral” refers to molecules which are superimposable on their mirror image partner.

The term “diastereomers” refers to stereoisomers with two or more centers of dissymmetry and whose molecules are not mirror images of one another.

The term “enantiomers” refers to two stereoisomers of a compound which are non-superimposable mirror images of one another. An equimolar mixture of two enantiomers is called a “racemic mixture” or a “racemate.”

The term “isomers” or “stereoisomers” refers to compounds which have identical chemical constitution, but differ with regard to the arrangement of the atoms or groups in space.

The term “prodrug” includes compounds with moieties which can be metabolized in vivo. Generally, the prodrugs are metabolized in vivo by esterases or by other mechanisms to active drugs. Examples of prodrugs and their uses are well known in the art (See, e.g., Berge et al. (1977) “Pharmaceutical Salts”, J. Pharm. Sci. 66:1-19). The prodrugs can be prepared in situ during the final isolation and purification of the compounds, or by separately reacting the purified compound in its free acid form or hydroxyl with a suitable esterifying agent.

Hydroxyl groups can be converted into esters via treatment with a carboxylic acid. Examples of prodrug moieties include substituted and unsubstituted, branch or unbranched lower alkyl ester moieties, (e.g., propionoic acid esters), lower alkenyl esters, di-lower alkyl-amino lower-alkyl esters (e.g., dimethylaminoethyl ester), acylamino lower alkyl esters (e.g., acetyloxymethyl ester), acyloxy lower alkyl esters (e.g., pivaloyloxymethyl ester), aryl esters (phenyl ester), aryl-lower alkyl esters (e.g., benzyl ester), substituted (e.g., with methyl, halo, or methoxy substituents) aryl and aryl-lower alkyl esters, amides, lower-alkyl amides, di-lower alkyl amides, and hydroxy amides. Preferred prodrug moieties are propionoic acid esters and acyl esters. Prodrugs which are converted to active forms through other mechanisms in vivo are also included. In aspects, the compounds of the invention are prodrugs of any of the formulae herein.

The term “subject” refers to animals such as mammals, including, but not limited to, primates (e.g., humans), cows, sheep, goats, horses, dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, mice and the like. In certain embodiments, the subject is a human.

The terms “a,” “an,” and “the” refer to “one or more” when used in this application, including the claims. Thus, for example, reference to “a sample” includes a plurality of samples, unless the context clearly is to the contrary (e.g., a plurality of samples), and so forth.

Throughout this specification and the claims, the words “comprise,” “comprises,” and “comprising” are used in a non-exclusive sense, except where the context requires otherwise.

As used herein, the term “about,” when referring to a value is meant to encompass variations of, in some embodiments ±20%, in some embodiments ±10%, in some embodiments ±5%, in some embodiments ±1%, in some embodiments ±0.5%, and in some embodiments ±0.1% from the specified amount, as such variations are appropriate to perform the disclosed methods or employ the disclosed compositions.

Use of the word “inhibitor” herein is meant to mean a molecule that exhibits activity for inhibiting a metalloenzyme. By “inhibit” herein is meant to decrease the activity of metalloenzyme, as compared to the activity of metalloenzyme in the absence of the inhibitor. In some embodiments, the term “inhibit” means a decrease in metalloenzyme activity of at least about 5%, at least about 10%, at least about 20%, at least about 25%, at least about 50%, at least about 60%, at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, or at least about 95%. In other embodiments, inhibit means a decrease in metalloenzyme activity of about 5% to about 25%, about 25% to about 50%, about 50% to about 75%, or about 75% to 100%. In some embodiments, inhibit means a decrease in metalloenzyme activity of about 95% to 100%, e.g., a decrease in activity of 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100%. Such decreases can be measured using a variety of techniques that would be recognizable by one of skill in the art. Particular assays for measuring individual activity are described below.

Furthermore the compounds of the invention include olefins having either geometry: “Z” refers to what is referred to as a “cis” (same side) configuration whereas “E” refers to what is referred to as a “trans” (opposite side) configuration. With respect to the nomenclature of a chiral center, the terms “d” and “1” configuration are as defined by the IUPAC Recommendations. As to the use of the terms, diastereomer, racemate, epimer and enantiomer, these will be used in their normal context to describe the stereochemistry of preparations.

As used herein, the term “alkyl” refers to a straight-chained or branched hydrocarbon group containing 1 to 12 carbon atoms. The term “lower alkyl” refers to a C1-C6 alkyl chain. Examples of alkyl groups include methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, tert-butyl, and n-pentyl. Alkyl groups may be optionally substituted with one or more substituents.

The term “alkenyl” refers to an unsaturated hydrocarbon chain that may be a straight chain or branched chain, containing 2 to 12 carbon atoms and at least one carbon-carbon double bond. Alkenyl groups may be optionally substituted with one or more substituents.

The term “alkynyl” refers to an unsaturated hydrocarbon chain that may be a straight chain or branched chain, containing the 2 to 12 carbon atoms and at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. Alkynyl groups may be optionally substituted with one or more substituents.

The sp² or sp carbons of an alkenyl group and an alkynyl group, respectively, may optionally be the point of attachment of the alkenyl or alkynyl groups.

The term “alkoxy” refers to an —O-alkyl radical.

As used herein, the term “halogen”, “hal” or “halo” means —F, —Cl, —Br or —I.

The term “haloalkoxy” refers to an —O-alkyl radical that is substituted by one or more halo substituents. Examples of haloalkoxy groups include trifluoromethoxy, and 2,2,2-trifluoroethoxy.

The term “cycloalkyl” refers to a hydrocarbon 3-8 membered monocyclic or 7-14 membered bicyclic ring system having at least one saturated ring or having at least one non-aromatic ring, wherein the non-aromatic ring may have some degree of unsaturation. Cycloalkyl groups may be optionally substituted with one or more substituents. In one embodiment, 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 atoms of each ring of a cycloalkyl group may be substituted by a substituent. Representative examples of cycloalkyl group include cyclopropyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cyclobutyl, cycloheptyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclopentadienyl, cyclohexenyl, cyclohexadienyl, and the like.

The term “aryl” refers to a hydrocarbon monocyclic, bicyclic or tricyclic aromatic ring system. Aryl groups may be optionally substituted with one or more substituents. In one embodiment, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or 6 atoms of each ring of an aryl group may be substituted by a substituent. Examples of aryl groups include phenyl, naphthyl, anthracenyl, fluorenyl, indenyl, azulenyl, and the like.

The term “heteroaryl” refers to an aromatic 5-8 membered monocyclic, 8-12 membered bicyclic, or 11-14 membered tricyclic ring system having 1-4 ring heteroatoms if monocyclic, 1-6 heteroatoms if bicyclic, or 1-9 heteroatoms if tricyclic, said heteroatoms selected from O, N, or S, and the remainder ring atoms being carbon (with appropriate hydrogen atoms unless otherwise indicated). Heteroaryl groups may be optionally substituted with one or more substituents. In one embodiment, 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 atoms of each ring of a heteroaryl group may be substituted by a substituent. Examples of heteroaryl groups include pyridyl, furanyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, oxadiazolyl, imidazolyl thiazolyl, isoxazolyl, quinolinyl, pyrazolyl, isothiazolyl, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, triazinyl, isoquinolinyl, indazolyl, and the like.

The term “nitrogen-containing heteroaryl” refers to a heteroaryl group having 1-4 ring nitrogen heteroatoms if monocyclic, 1-6 ring nitrogen heteroatoms if bicyclic, or 1-9 ring nitrogen heteroatoms if tricyclic.

The term “heterocycloalkyl” refers to a nonaromatic 3-8 membered monocyclic, 7-12 membered bicyclic, or 10-14 membered tricyclic ring system comprising 1-3 heteroatoms if monocyclic, 1-6 heteroatoms if bicyclic, or 1-9 heteroatoms if tricyclic, said heteroatoms selected from O, N, S, B, P or Si, wherein the nonaromatic ring system is completely saturated. Heterocycloalkyl groups may be optionally substituted with one or more substituents. In one embodiment, 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 atoms of each ring of a heterocycloalkyl group may be substituted by a substituent. Representative heterocycloalkyl groups include piperidinyl, piperazinyl, tetrahydropyranyl, morpholinyl, thiomorpholinyl, 1,3-dioxolane, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothienyl, thiirenyl, and the like.

The term “alkylamino” refers to an amino substituent which is further substituted with one or two alkyl groups. The term “aminoalkyl” refers to an alkyl substituent which is further substituted with one or more amino groups. The term “hydroxyalkyl” or “hydroxylalkyl” refers to an alkyl substituent which is further substituted with one or more hydroxyl groups. The alkyl or aryl portion of alkylamino, aminoalkyl, mercaptoalkyl, hydroxyalkyl, mercaptoalkoxy, sulfonylalkyl, sulfonylaryl, alkylcarbonyl, and alkylcarbonylalkyl may be optionally substituted with one or more substituents.

Acids and bases useful in the methods herein are known in the art. Acid catalysts are any acidic chemical, which can be inorganic (e.g., hydrochloric, sulfuric, nitric acids, aluminum trichloride) or organic (e.g., camphorsulfonic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, acetic acid, ytterbium triflate) in nature. Acids are useful in either catalytic or stoichiometric amounts to facilitate chemical reactions. Bases are any basic chemical, which can be inorganic (e.g., sodium bicarbonate, potassium hydroxide) or organic (e.g., triethylamine, pyridine) in nature. Bases are useful in either catalytic or stoichiometric amounts to facilitate chemical reactions.

Alkylating agents are any reagent that is capable of effecting the alkylation of the functional group at issue (e.g., oxygen atom of an alcohol, nitrogen atom of an amino group). Alkylating agents are known in the art, including in the references cited herein, and include alkyl halides (e.g., methyl iodide, benzyl bromide or chloride), alkyl sulfates (e.g., methyl sulfate), or other alkyl group-leaving group combinations known in the art. Leaving groups are any stable species that can detach from a molecule during a reaction (e.g., elimination reaction, substitution reaction) and are known in the art, including in the references cited herein, and include halides (e.g., I—, Cl—, Br—, F—), hydroxy, alkoxy (e.g., —OMe, —O-t-Bu), acyloxy anions (e.g., —OAc, —OC(O)CF₃), sulfonates (e.g., mesyl, tosyl), acetamides (e.g., —NHC(O)Me), carbamates (e.g., N(Me)C(O)Ot-Bu), phosphonates (e.g., —OP(O)(OEt)₂), water or alcohols (protic conditions), and the like.

In certain embodiments, substituents on any group (such as, for example, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroaralkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl) can be at any atom of that group, wherein any group that can be substituted (such as, for example, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, aryl, aralkyl, heteroaryl, heteroaralkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl) can be optionally substituted with one or more substituents (which may be the same or different), each replacing a hydrogen atom. Examples of suitable substituents include, but are not limited to alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aralkyl, heteroaralkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, halogen, haloalkyl, cyano, nitro, alkoxy, aryloxy, hydroxyl, hydroxylalkyl, oxo (i.e., carbonyl), carboxyl, formyl, alkylcarbonyl, alkylcarbonylalkyl, alkoxycarbonyl, alkylcarbonyloxy, aryloxycarbonyl, heteroaryloxy, heteroaryloxycarbonyl, thio, mercapto, mercaptoalkyl, arylsulfonyl, amino, aminoalkyl, dialkylamino, alkylcarbonylamino, alkylaminocarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, alkylamino, arylamino, diarylamino, alkylcarbonyl, or arylamino-substituted aryl; arylalkylamino, aralkylaminocarbonyl, amido, alkylaminosulfonyl, arylaminosulfonyl, dialkylaminosulfonyl, alkylsulfonylamino, arylsulfonylamino, imino, carbamido, carbamyl, thioureido, thiocyanato, sulfoamido, sulfonylalkyl, sulfonylaryl, mercaptoalkoxy, N-hydroxyamidinyl, or N′-aryl, N″-hydroxyamidinyl.

Compounds of the invention can be made by means known in the art of organic synthesis. Methods for optimizing reaction conditions, if necessary minimizing competing by-products, are known in the art. Reaction optimization and scale-up may advantageously utilize high-speed parallel synthesis equipment and computer-controlled microreactors (e.g. Design And Optimization in Organic Synthesis, 2^(nd) Edition, Carlson R, Ed, 2005; Elsevier Science Ltd.; Jahnisch, K et al, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 2004 43: 406; and references therein). Additional reaction schemes and protocols may be determined by the skilled artesian by use of commercially available structure-searchable database software, for instance, SciFinder® (CAS division of the American Chemical Society) and CrossFire Beilstein® (Elsevier MDL), or by appropriate keyword searching using an internet search engine such as Google® or keyword databases such as the US Patent and Trademark Office text database. The invention includes the intermediate compounds used in making the compounds of the formulae herein as well as methods of making such compounds and intermediates, including without limitation those as specifically described in the examples herein.

The compounds herein may also contain linkages (e.g., carbon-carbon bonds) wherein bond rotation is restricted about that particular linkage, e.g. restriction resulting from the presence of a ring or double bond. Accordingly, all cis/trans and E/Z isomers are expressly included in the present invention. The compounds herein may also be represented in multiple tautomeric forms, in such instances, the invention expressly includes all tautomeric forms of the compounds described herein, even though only a single tautomeric form may be represented. All such isomeric forms of such compounds herein are expressly included in the present invention. All crystal forms and polymorphs of the compounds described herein are expressly included in the present invention. Also embodied are extracts and fractions comprising compounds of the invention. The term isomers is intended to include diastereoisomers, enantiomers, regioisomers, structural isomers, rotational isomers, tautomers, and the like. For compounds which contain one or more stereogenic centers, e.g., chiral compounds, the methods of the invention may be carried out with an enantiomerically enriched compound, a racemate, or a mixture of diastereomers.

Preferred enantiomerically enriched compounds have an enantiomeric excess of 50% or more, more preferably the compound has an enantiomeric excess of 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98%, or 99% or more. In preferred embodiments, only one enantiomer or diastereomer of a chiral compound of the invention is administered to cells or a subject.

Pharmaceutical Compositions

In one aspect, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of any formulae herein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In another embodiment, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition further comprising an additional therapeutic agent. In a further embodiment, the additional therapeutic agent is an anti-cancer agent, antifungal agent, cardiovascular agent, antiinflammatory agent, chemotherapeutic agent, an anti-angiogenesis agent, cytotoxic agent, an anti-proliferation agent, metabolic disease agent, opthalmologic disease agent, central nervous system (CNS) disease agent, urologic disease agent, or gastrointestinal disease agent.

In one aspect, the invention provides a kit comprising an effective amount of a compound of any formulae herein, in unit dosage form, together with instructions for administering the compound to a subject suffering from or susceptible to a metalloenzyme-mediated disease or disorder, including cancer, solid tumor, cardiovascular disease, inflammatory disease, infectious disease. In other embodiments the disease, disorder or symptom thereof is metabolic disease, opthalmologic disease, central nervous system (CNS) disease, urologic disease, or gastrointestinal disease.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salts” or “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” is meant to include salts of the active compounds which are prepared with relatively nontoxic acids or bases, depending on the particular substituents found on the compounds described herein. When compounds of the present invention contain relatively acidic functionalities, base addition salts can be obtained by contacting the neutral form of such compounds with a sufficient amount of the desired base, either neat or in a suitable inert solvent. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable base addition salts include sodium, potassium, calcium, ammonium, organic amino, or magnesium salt, or a similar salt. When compounds of the present invention contain relatively basic functionalities, acid addition salts can be obtained by contacting the neutral form of such compounds with a sufficient amount of the desired acid, either neat or in a suitable inert solvent. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts include those derived from inorganic acids like hydrochloric, hydrobromic, nitric, carbonic, monohydrogencarbonic, phosphoric, monohydrogenphosphoric, dihydrogenphosphoric, sulfuric, monohydrogensulfuric, hydroiodic, or phosphorous acids and the like, as well as the salts derived from relatively nontoxic organic acids like acetic, propionic, isobutyric, maleic, malonic, benzoic, succinic, suberic, fumaric, lactic, mandelic, phthalic, benzenesulfonic, p-tolylsulfonic, citric, tartaric, methanesulfonic, and the like. Also included are salts of amino acids such as arginate and the like, and salts of organic acids like glucuronic or galactunoric acids and the like (see, e.g., Berge et al., Journal of Pharmaceutical Science 66:1-19 (1977)). Certain specific compounds of the present invention contain both basic and acidic functionalities that allow the compounds to be converted into either base or acid addition salts. Other pharmaceutically acceptable carriers known to those of skill in the art are suitable for the present invention.

The neutral forms of the compounds may be regenerated by contacting the salt with a base or acid and isolating the parent compound in the conventional manner. The parent form of the compound differs from the various salt forms in certain physical properties, such as solubility in polar solvents, but otherwise the salts are equivalent to the parent form of the compound for the purposes of the present invention.

In addition to salt forms, the present invention provides compounds which are in a prodrug form. Prodrugs of the compounds described herein are those compounds that readily undergo chemical changes under physiological conditions to provide the compounds of the present invention. Additionally, prodrugs can be converted to the compounds of the present invention by chemical or biochemical methods in an ex vivo environment. For example, prodrugs can be slowly converted to the compounds of the present invention when placed in a transdermal patch reservoir with a suitable enzyme or chemical reagent.

Certain compounds of the present invention can exist in unsolvated forms as well as solvated forms, including hydrated forms. In general, the solvated forms are equivalent to unsolvated forms and are intended to be encompassed within the scope of the present invention. Certain compounds of the present invention may exist in multiple crystalline or amorphous forms. In general, all physical forms are equivalent for the uses contemplated by the present invention and are intended to be within the scope of the present invention.

The invention also provides a pharmaceutical composition, comprising an effective amount of a compound described herein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. In an embodiment, compound is administered to the subject using a pharmaceutically-acceptable formulation, e.g., a pharmaceutically-acceptable formulation that provides sustained delivery of the compound to a subject for at least 12 hours, 24 hours, 36 hours, 48 hours, one week, two weeks, three weeks, or four weeks after the pharmaceutically-acceptable formulation is administered to the subject.

Actual dosage levels and time course of administration of the active ingredients in the pharmaceutical compositions of this invention may be varied so as to obtain an amount of the active ingredient which is effective to achieve the desired therapeutic response for a particular patient, composition, and mode of administration, without being toxic (or unacceptably toxic) to the patient.

In use, at least one compound according to the present invention is administered in a pharmaceutically effective amount to a subject in need thereof in a pharmaceutical carrier by intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, or intracerebro ventricular injection or by oral administration or topical application. In accordance with the present invention, a compound of the invention may be administered alone or in conjunction with a second, different therapeutic. By “in conjunction with” is meant together, substantially simultaneously or sequentially. In one embodiment, a compound of the invention is administered acutely. The compound of the invention may therefore be administered for a short course of treatment, such as for about 1 day to about 1 week. In another embodiment, the compound of the invention may be administered over a longer period of time to ameliorate chronic disorders, such as, for example, for about one week to several months depending upon the condition to be treated.

By “pharmaceutically effective amount” as used herein is meant an amount of a compound of the invention, high enough to significantly positively modify the condition to be treated but low enough to avoid serious side effects (at a reasonable benefit/risk ratio), within the scope of sound medical judgment. A pharmaceutically effective amount of a compound of the invention will vary with the particular goal to be achieved, the age and physical condition of the patient being treated, the severity of the underlying disease, the duration of treatment, the nature of concurrent therapy and the specific compound employed. For example, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of the invention administered to a child or a neonate will be reduced proportionately in accordance with sound medical judgment. The effective amount of a compound of the invention will thus be the minimum amount which will provide the desired effect.

A decided practical advantage of the present invention is that the compound may be administered in a convenient manner such as by intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, oral or intra-cerebroventricular injection routes or by topical application, such as in creams or gels. Depending on the route of administration, the active ingredients which comprise a compound of the invention may be required to be coated in a material to protect the compound from the action of enzymes, acids and other natural conditions which may inactivate the compound. In order to administer a compound of the invention by other than parenteral administration, the compound can be coated by, or administered with, a material to prevent inactivation.

The compound may be administered parenterally or intraperitoneally. Dispersions can also be prepared, for example, in glycerol, liquid polyethylene glycols, and mixtures thereof, and in oils.

Some examples of substances which can serve as pharmaceutical carriers are sugars, such as lactose, glucose and sucrose; starches such as corn starch and potato starch; cellulose and its derivatives such as sodium carboxymethycellulose, ethylcellulose and cellulose acetates; powdered tragancanth; malt; gelatin; talc; stearic acids; magnesium stearate; calcium sulfate; vegetable oils, such as peanut oils, cotton seed oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil and oil of theobroma; polyols such as propylene glycol, glycerine, sorbitol, manitol, and polyethylene glycol; agar; alginic acids; pyrogen-free water; isotonic saline; and phosphate buffer solution; skim milk powder; as well as other non-toxic compatible substances used in pharmaceutical formulations such as Vitamin C, estrogen and echinacea, for example. Wetting agents and lubricants such as sodium lauryl sulfate, as well as coloring agents, flavoring agents, lubricants, excipients, tableting agents, stabilizers, anti-oxidants and preservatives, can also be present. Solubilizing agents, including for example, cremaphore and beta-cyclodextrins can also used in the pharmaceutical compositions herein.

Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the active compounds of the presently disclosed subject matter (or prodrugs thereof) can be manufactured by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making levigating, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping or lyophilization processes. The compositions can be formulated in conventional manner using one or more physiologically acceptable carriers, diluents, excipients or auxiliaries which facilitate processing of the active compounds into preparations which can be used pharmaceutically.

Pharmaceutical compositions of the presently disclosed subject matter can take a form suitable for virtually any mode of administration, including, for example, topical, ocular, oral, buccal, systemic, nasal, injection, transdermal, rectal, vaginal, and the like, or a form suitable for administration by inhalation or insufflation.

For topical administration, the active compound(s) or prodrug(s) can be formulated as solutions, gels, ointments, creams, suspensions, and the like.

Systemic formulations include those designed for administration by injection, e.g., subcutaneous, intravenous, intramuscular, intrathecal or intraperitoneal injection, as well as those designed for transdermal, transmucosal, oral, or pulmonary administration.

Useful injectable preparations include sterile suspensions, solutions or emulsions of the active compound(s) in aqueous or oily vehicles. The compositions also can contain formulating agents, such as suspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agent. The formulations for injection can be presented in unit dosage form (e.g., in ampules or in multidose containers) and can contain added preservatives.

Alternatively, the injectable formulation can be provided in powder form for reconstitution with a suitable vehicle, including but not limited to sterile pyrogen free water, buffer, dextrose solution, and the like, before use. To this end, the active compound(s) can be dried by any art-known technique, such as lyophilization, and reconstituted prior to use.

For transmucosal administration, penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Such penetrants are known in the art.

For oral administration, the pharmaceutical compositions can take the form of, for example, lozenges, tablets or capsules prepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically acceptable excipients such as binding agents (e.g., pregelatinized maize starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose); fillers (e.g., lactose, microcrystalline cellulose or calcium hydrogen phosphate); lubricants (e.g., magnesium stearate, talc or silica); disintegrants (e.g., potato starch or sodium starch glycolate); or wetting agents (e.g., sodium lauryl sulfate). The tablets can be coated by methods well known in the art with, for example, sugars or enteric coatings.

Liquid preparations for oral administration can take the form of, for example, elixirs, solutions, syrups or suspensions, or they can be presented as a dry product for constitution with water or other suitable vehicle before use. Such liquid preparations can be prepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically acceptable additives such as suspending agents (e.g., sorbitol syrup, cellulose derivatives or hydrogenated edible fats); emulsifying agents (e.g., lecithin or acacia); non aqueous vehicles (e.g., almond oil, oily esters, ethyl alcohol or fractionated vegetable oils); and preservatives (e.g., methyl or propyl p-hydroxybenzoates or sorbic acid). The preparations also can contain buffer salts, preservatives, flavoring, coloring and sweetening agents as appropriate.

Preparations for oral administration can be suitably formulated to give controlled release of the active compound or prodrug, as is well known.

For buccal administration, the compositions can take the form of tablets or lozenges formulated in a conventional manner.

For rectal and vaginal routes of administration, the active compound(s) can be formulated as solutions (for retention enemas), suppositories, or ointments containing conventional suppository bases, such as cocoa butter or other glycerides.

For nasal administration or administration by inhalation or insufflation, the active compound(s) or prodrug(s) can be conveniently delivered in the form of an aerosol spray from pressurized packs or a nebulizer with the use of a suitable propellant, e.g., dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorotetrafluoroethane, fluorocarbons, carbon dioxide or other suitable gas. In the case of a pressurized aerosol, the dosage unit can be determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount. Capsules and cartridges for use in an inhaler or insufflator (for example capsules and cartridges comprised of gelatin) can be formulated containing a powder mix of the compound and a suitable powder base such as lactose or starch.

A specific example of an aqueous suspension formulation suitable for nasal administration using commercially-available nasal spray devices includes the following ingredients: active compound or prodrug (0.5-20 mg/ml); benzalkonium chloride (0.1-0.2 mg/mL); polysorbate 80 (TWEEN® 80; 0.5-5 mg/ml); carboxymethylcellulose sodium or microcrystalline cellulose (1-15 mg/ml); phenylethanol (1-4 mg/ml); and dextrose (20-50 mg/ml). The pH of the final suspension can be adjusted to range from about pH 5 to pH 7, with a pH of about pH 5.5 being typical.

For prolonged delivery, the active compound(s) or prodrug(s) can be formulated as a depot preparation for administration by implantation or intramuscular injection. The active ingredient can be formulated with suitable polymeric or hydrophobic materials (e.g., as an emulsion in an acceptable oil) or ion exchange resins, or as sparingly soluble derivatives, e.g., as a sparingly soluble salt. Alternatively, transdermal delivery systems manufactured as an adhesive disc or patch which slowly releases the active compound(s) for percutaneous absorption can be used. To this end, permeation enhancers can be used to facilitate transdermal penetration of the active compound(s). Suitable transdermal patches are described in for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,407,713; U.S. Pat. No. 5,352,456; U.S. Pat. No. 5,332,213; U.S. Pat. No. 5,336,168; U.S. Pat. No. 5,290,561; U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,346; U.S. Pat. No. 5,164,189; U.S. Pat. No. 5,163,899; U.S. Pat. No. 5,088,977; U.S. Pat. No. 5,087,240; U.S. Pat. No. 5,008,110; and U.S. Pat. No. 4,921,475, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

Alternatively, other pharmaceutical delivery systems can be employed. Liposomes and emulsions are well-known examples of delivery vehicles that can be used to deliver active compound(s) or prodrug(s). Certain organic solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) also can be employed.

The pharmaceutical compositions can, if desired, be presented in a pack or dispenser device which can contain one or more unit dosage forms containing the active compound(s). The pack can, for example, comprise metal or plastic foil, such as a blister pack. The pack or dispenser device can be accompanied by instructions for administration.

The active compound(s) or prodrug(s) of the presently disclosed subject matter, or compositions thereof, will generally be used in an amount effective to achieve the intended result, for example in an amount effective to treat or prevent the particular disease being treated. The compound(s) can be administered therapeutically to achieve therapeutic benefit or prophylactically to achieve prophylactic benefit. By therapeutic benefit is meant eradication or amelioration of the underlying disorder being treated and/or eradication or amelioration of one or more of the symptoms associated with the underlying disorder such that the patient reports an improvement in feeling or condition, notwithstanding that the patient can still be afflicted with the underlying disorder. For example, administration of a compound to a patient suffering from an allergy provides therapeutic benefit not only when the underlying allergic response is eradicated or ameliorated, but also when the patient reports a decrease in the severity or duration of the symptoms associated with the allergy following exposure to the allergen. As another example, therapeutic benefit in the context of asthma includes an improvement in respiration following the onset of an asthmatic attack, or a reduction in the frequency or severity of asthmatic episodes. Therapeutic benefit also includes halting or slowing the progression of the disease, regardless of whether improvement is realized.

For prophylactic administration, the compound can be administered to a patient at risk of developing one of the previously described diseases. A patient at risk of developing a disease can be a patient having characteristics placing the patient in a designated group of at risk patients, as defined by an appropriate medical professional or group. A patient at risk may also be a patient that is commonly or routinely in a setting where development of the underlying disease that may be treated by administration of a metalloenzyme inhibitor according to the invention could occur. In other words, the at risk patient is one who is commonly or routinely exposed to the disease or illness causing conditions or may be acutely exposed for a limited time. Alternatively, prophylactic administration can be applied to avoid the onset of symptoms in a patient diagnosed with the underlying disorder.

The amount of compound administered will depend upon a variety of factors, including, for example, the particular indication being treated, the mode of administration, whether the desired benefit is prophylactic or therapeutic, the severity of the indication being treated and the age and weight of the patient, the bioavailability of the particular active compound, and the like. Determination of an effective dosage is well within the capabilities of those skilled in the art.

Effective dosages can be estimated initially from in vitro assays. For example, an initial dosage for use in animals can be formulated to achieve a circulating blood or serum concentration of active compound that is at or above an IC50 of the particular compound as measured in as in vitro assay, such as the in vitro fungal MIC or MFC and other in vitro assays described in the Examples section. Calculating dosages to achieve such circulating blood or serum concentrations taking into account the bioavailability of the particular compound is well within the capabilities of skilled artisans. For guidance, see Fingl & Woodbury, “General Principles,” In: Goodman and Gilman's The Pharmaceutical Basis of Therapeutics, Chapter 1, pp. 1-46, latest edition, Pagamonon Press, and the references cited therein, which are incorporated herein by reference.

Initial dosages also can be estimated from in vivo data, such as animal models. Animal models useful for testing the efficacy of compounds to treat or prevent the various diseases described above are well-known in the art.

Dosage amounts will typically be in the range of from about 0.0001 or 0.001 or 0.01 mg/kg/day to about 100 mg/kg/day, but can be higher or lower, depending upon, among other factors, the activity of the compound, its bioavailability, the mode of administration, and various factors discussed above. Dosage amount and interval can be adjusted individually to provide plasma levels of the compound(s) which are sufficient to maintain therapeutic or prophylactic effect. In cases of local administration or selective uptake, such as local topical administration, the effective local concentration of active compound(s) cannot be related to plasma concentration. Skilled artisans will be able to optimize effective local dosages without undue experimentation.

The compound(s) can be administered once per day, a few or several times per day, or even multiple times per day, depending upon, among other things, the indication being treated and the judgment of the prescribing physician.

Preferably, the compound(s) will provide therapeutic or prophylactic benefit without causing substantial toxicity. Toxicity of the compound(s) can be determined using standard pharmaceutical procedures. The dose ratio between toxic and therapeutic (or prophylactic) effect is the therapeutic index. Compounds(s) that exhibit high therapeutic indices are preferred.

The recitation of a listing of chemical groups in any definition of a variable herein includes definitions of that variable as any single group or combination of listed groups. The recitation of an embodiment for a variable herein includes that embodiment as any single embodiment or in combination with any other embodiments or portions thereof. The recitation of an embodiment herein includes that embodiment as any single embodiment or in combination with any other embodiments or portions thereof.

Another object of the present invention is the use of a compound as described herein (e.g., of any formulae herein) in the manufacture of a medicament for use in the treatment of a metalloenzyme-mediated disorder or disease. Another object of the present invention is the use of a compound as described herein (e.g., of any formulae herein) for use in the treatment of a metalloenzyme-mediated disorder or disease. Another object of the present invention is the use of a compound as described herein (e.g., of any formulae herein) in the manufacture of an agricultural composition for use in the treatment or prevention of a metalloenzyme-mediated disorder or disease in agricultural or agrarian settings.

Agricultural Applications

The compounds and compositions herein can be used in methods of modulating metalloenzyme activity in a microorganism on a plant comprising contacting a compound (or composition) herein with the plant (e.g., seed, seedling, grass, weed, grain). The compounds and compositions herein can be used to treat a plant, field or other agricultural area (e.g., as herbicides, pesticides, growth regulators, etc.) by administering the compound or composition (e.g., contacting, applying, spraying, atomizing, dusting, etc.) to the subject plant, field or other agricultural area. The administration can be either pre- or post-emergence. The administration can be either as a treatment or preventative regimen.

EXAMPLES

The present invention will now be demonstrated using specific examples that are not to be construed as limiting.

General Experimental Procedures

Definitions of variables in the structures in schemes herein are commensurate with those of corresponding positions in the formulae delineated herein.

Synthesis of 1 or 1a

A process to prepare enantiopure compound 1 or 1a is disclosed. Syntheses of 1 or 1a may be accomplished using the example syntheses that are shown below (Schemes 1-4). The preparation of precursor ketone 3-Br is performed starting with reaction of 2,5-dibromopyridine with ethyl 2-bromo-difluoroacetate to produce ester 2-Br. This ester is reacted with morpholine to furnish morpholine amide 2b-Br, followed by arylation to provide ketone 3-Br.

Ketone 3 may be prepared in an analogous fashion as described in Scheme 1 starting from corresponding substituted 2-bromo-pyridines, which can be prepared using according to synthetic transformations known in the art and contained in the references cited herein (Scheme 2).

Alternatively, compound 1 can be prepared according to Scheme 3 utilizing diols 2-6b (or 2-6d, the enantiomer of 2-6b, or mixtures thereof) or 2-6a (or 2-6c, the enantiomer of 2-6a, or mixtures thereof). Olefins 2-5a and 2-5 can be prepared by reacting ketones 3 and 1-4 under Wittig olefination conditions (e.g., Ph₃PCH₃Br and BuLi). Also, as indicated in Scheme 3, any of pyridine compounds, 3, 2-5a, 2-6b, 2-7b, 4*, 4b, or 6 can be converted to the corresponding 4-CF₃O-Ph analogs (e.g., 1-4, 2-5, 2-6a, 2-7a, 5*, 1-6*, or 1 or the corresponding enantiomers, or mixtures thereof) by cross-coupling with (4-trifluoromethoxyphenyl)boronic acid (or the corresponding alkyl boronates or pinnacol boronates or the like), in a suitable solvent system (e.g., an organic-aqueous solvent mixture), in the presence of a transition metal catalyst (e.g., (dppf)PdCl₂), and in the presence of a base (e.g., KHCO₃, K₂CO₃, Cs₂CO₃, or Na₂CO₃, or the like). Olefins 2-5a and 2-5 can be transformed to the corresponding chiral diols, 2-6b (or 2-6d, the enantiomer of 2-6b, or mixtures thereof) or 2-6a (or 2-6c, the enantiomer of 2-6a, or mixtures thereof), through exposure to Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions: 1) commercially available AD-mix alpha or AD-mix beta with or without additional osmium oxidant and methanesulfonamide, 2) combination of a catalytic osmium oxidant (e.g., OsO₄ or K₂OsO₂(OH)₄), a stoichiometric iron oxidant (e.g., K₃Fe(CN)₆), a base (e.g., KHCO₃, K₂CO₃, Cs₂CO₃, or Na₂CO₃, or the like), and a chiral ligand (e.g., (DHQ)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂AQN, (DHQ)₂AQN, (DHQD)₂PYR, or (DHQ)₂PYR; preferably (DHQ)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂AQN, and (DHQD)₂PYR), or 3) option 2) with methanesulfonamide. The primary alcohol of the resultant chiral diols, 2-6b (or 2-6d, the enantiomer of 2-6b, or mixtures thereof) or 2-6a (or 2-6c, the enantiomer of 2-6a, or mixtures thereof), can then be activated to afford compounds 2-7b (or 2-7d, the enantiomer of 2-7b, or mixtures thereof) or 2-7a (or 2-7c, the enantiomer of 2-7a, or mixtures thereof). For example, the mesylates can be prepared by exposing chiral diols, 2-6b (or 2-6d, the enantiomer of 2-6b, or mixtures thereof) or 2-6a (or 2-6c, the enantiomer of 2-6a, or mixtures thereof), to methanesulfonyl chloride and a base. Epoxide formation can be affected by the base-mediated (e.g., KHCO₃, K₂CO₃, Cs₂CO₃, or Na₂CO₃, or the like) ring closure of compounds 2-7b (or 2-7d, the enantiomer of 2-7b, or mixtures thereof) or 2-7a (or 2-7c, the enantiomer of 2-7a, or mixtures thereof) to provide epoxides 4* (or 4c*, the enantiomer of 4*, or mixtures thereof) and 5* (or 5-b*, the enantiomer of 5*, or mixtures thereof). The epoxides can then be converted into amino-alcohols 4b (or 4c, the enantiomer of 4b, or mixtures thereof) and 1-6* (or 1-7*, the enantiomer of 1-6*, or mixtures thereof) through ammonia-mediated epoxide opening using ammonia in a suitable solvent (e.g., MeOH, EtOH, or water). Subsequent treatment with TMS-azide in the presence of trimethylorthoformate and sodium acetate in acetic acid would yield compounds 20 (or 20a, the enantiomer of 20, or mixtures thereof) or 1 (or 1a, the enantiomer of 1, or mixtures thereof) (U.S. Pat. No. 4,426,531).

Compound 1 (or 1a, the enantiomer of 1, or mixtures thereof) prepared by any of the methods presented herein can be converted to a sulfonic salt of formula IX (or IXa, the enantiomer of IX, or mixtures thereof), as shown in Scheme 4. This can be accomplished by a) combining compound 1 (or 1a, the enantiomer of 1, or mixtures thereof), a crystallization solvent or crystallization solvent mixture (e.g., EtOAc, iPrOAc, EtOH, MeOH, or acetonitrile, or combinations thereof), and a sulfonic acid

(e.g., Z=Ph, p-tolyl, Me, or Et), b) diluting the mixture with an appropriate crystallization co-solvent or crystallization co-solvent mixture (e.g., pentane, methyl t-butylether, hexane, heptane, or toluene, or combinations thereof), and c) filtering the mixture to obtain a sulfonic acid salt of formula IX (or IXa, the enantiomer of IX, or mixtures thereof).

Example 1 Preparation of 1-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-2,2-difluoro-2-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)ethanone (1-4) 1a. ethyl 2-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)-2,2-difluoroacetate (2)

Process Development

Table 1 illustrates the effects of the relative proportions of each of the reagents and reactants, the effect of temperature, and the effect of varying the solvent had on the overall performance of the transformation as measured by the overall yield and purity of the reaction.

TABLE 1 Process Development for the Preparation of compound 2-Br Br-ester Cu Solvent Temp Time 2-Br 1 Br-ester Other Entry (eq¹) (size/eq¹) (vol)² (° C.) (h) (%) (%) (%) (%)  1 1.04 3 μm/2.5 DMF (4) 51 84 76 3 11  2 1.04 3 μm/2.5 NMP (4) 51 84 19 66 6  3 1.04 Cu bronze DMF (4) 51 72 0 7 83  4 1.04 Cu bronze NMP (4) 51 72 12 83 3  5 1.04 3 μm/2.5 DMF (4) 51 48 80 4 7  6 1.02 3 μm/2.4 DMF (4) 75 20 74 1.5 9  7 1.02 3 μm/1.0 DMF (4) 75 17 75 9 4  8 1.02 3 μm/1.5 DMF (4) 75 17 84 6 3 6  9 1.02 3 μm/2.0 DMF (4) 75 17 85 6 10 0.9 3 μm/2.16 DMF (4) 75 17 80 11 1 6 11 0.79 3 μm/1.98 DMF (4) 75 17 88 4 1 6 12 0.67 3 μm/1.67 DMF (4) 75 17 86 7 5 13 0.8 3 μm/0.8 DMF (4) 75 16 65 20 5 14 0.8 3 μm/1.2 DMF (4) 75 16 83 6 3 6 15 0.77 3 μm/2.0 DMF (3.2) 75 18 79 13 <1 7 16 1.03 3 μm/2.5 DMSO (7) 35 69 75 5 8 12 17 0.79 3 μm/2.0 DMF (3.9) 75 16 90 3 6 18 1.25 3 μm/2.5 DMF (3.9) 75 23 83 6 8 19 1.25 3 μm/1.5 DMSO (3.9) 35 17 76 14 7 20 1.25 3 μm/1.25 DMSO (3.9) 70 17 62 30 2 21 0.79 3 μm/1.2 DMF (3.9) 70 17 78 7 12 22 0.79 3 μm/1.6 DMSO (4.3) 35 41 77 6 8 23 0.79 3 μm/2.0 DMSO (4.3) 35 41 81 4 9 24 0.67 3 μm/1.3 DMSO (4.3) 35 41 76 13 8 25 0.67 3 μm /1.67 DMSO (4.3) 35 41 89 4 7 26 0.67 3 μm /1.67 DMSO (3.6) 35 18 75 3 14 ¹Based on Compound 1 ²Based on grams of Compound 1

Typical Procedure for Preparing 2-Br

Copper (45 μm, 149 g, 0.198 moles, 2.5 equiv) was placed into a 3 L, 3-neck round bottom flask equipped with a condenser, thermocouple, and an overhead stirrer. DMSO (890 mL, 4.7 vol. based on ethyl 2-bromo-2,2-difluoroacetate) and 14 mL of concentrated sulfuric acid was added and the mixture stirred for 30 minutes. The mixture self-heated to about 31° C. during the stir time. After cooling the contents to 23° C., 2,5-dibromopyridine 1 (277 g, 1.17 moles, 1.5 eq) was added to the reaction mixture. The temperature of the contents decreased to 16° C. during a 10 minute stir time. 2-bromo-2,2-difluoroacetate (190 g, 0.936 moles, 1.0 eq) was added in one portion and the mixture stirred for 10 min. The flask contents were warmed to 35° C. and the internal temperature was maintained between 35-38° for 18 h. In-process HPLC showed 72% desired 2-Br. The warm reaction mixture was filtered through filter paper and the collected solids washed with 300 mL of 35° C. DMSO. The solids were then washed with 450 mL of n-heptane and 450 mL of MTBE. The collected filtrate was cooled to about 10° C. and was slowly added 900 mL of a cold 20% aqueous NH₄Cl solution, maintaining an internal temperature of <16° C. during the addition. After stirring for 15 minutes, the layers were settled and separated. The aqueous layer was extracted 2×450 mL of a 1:1 MTBE: n-heptane mixture. The combined organic layers were washed 2×450 mL of aqueous 20% NH₄Cl and with 200 mL of aqueous 20% NaCl. The organic layer was dried with 50 g MgSO₄ and the solvent removed to yield 2-Br as a dark oil. Weight of oil=183 g (70% yield by weight) HPLC purity (by area %)=85%. ¹H NMR (400 MHz, d₆-DMSO): δ8.86 (m, 1H), 8.35 (dd, J=8.4, 2.3 Hz, 1H), 7.84 (dd, J=8.3, 0.6 Hz, 1H), 4.34 (q, J=7.1 Hz, 2H), 1.23 (t, J=7.1 Hz, 3H). MS m/z 280 (M+H⁺), 282 (M+2+H⁺).

1b. 2-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)-2,2-difluoro-1-morpholinoethanone (2b-Br)

Process Development

Table 2 illustrates the effects of the relative proportions of each of the reagents and reactants, and the effect of varying the solvent had on the overall performance of the transformation as measured by the overall yield and purity of the reaction.

TABLE 2 Process Development for the Preparation of compound 2b-Br Crude HPLC Ester Morpholine Time Yield purity Experiment 2-Br (g) (eq) Solvent (h) (%) (%) 1 0.75 2 MeOH 16 N/A 92 2 1.00 0.8 MeOH >200 N/A 74 3 1.8 1 MeOH 40 N/A 85 4 1.7 0.8 MeOH 40 N/A 75 5 1.15 3 neat 2 82 88 6 1.4 6.6 neat 2 66 95 7 4.0 6.5 neat 2.5 87 92 8 7.3 6.7 neat 1.5 84 90 9 11.6 6.5 neat 16 N/A 96 10 11.5 6.5 neat 2 65 99 11 27 7.3 neat 2.5 72 97 12 22.7 6.3 neat 2.5 75 97 Note: All reactions were conducted at 22-25° C.

Typical Procedure for Converting 2-Br to 2b-Br

Crude ester 2-Br (183 g, 0.65 moles) was dissolved in 1.5 L of n-heptane and transferred to a 5 L 3-neck round bottom flask equipped with a condenser, an overhead stirrer and a thermocouple.

Morpholine (248 g, 2.85 moles, 4.4 equiv.) was charged to the flask and the mixture warmed to 60° C. and stirred for 16 hours. In-process HPLC showed <1% of ester 2-Br. The reaction mixture was cooled to 22-25° C. and 1.5 L of MTBE was added with continued cooling of the mixture to 4° C. and slowly added 700 mL of a 30%, by weight, aqueous citric acid solution. The temperature of the reaction mixture was kept <15° C. during the addition. The reaction was stirred at about 14° C. for one hour and then the layers were separated. The organic layer was washed with 400 mL of 30%, by weight, aqueous citric acid solution and then with 400 mL of aqueous 9% NaHCO₃. The solvent was slowly removed until 565 g of the reaction mixture remained. This mixture was stirred with overhead stirring for about 16 hours. The slurry was filtered and the solids washed with 250 mL of n-heptane. Weight of 2b-Br=133 g. HPLC purity (by area %) 98%.

This is a 44% overall yield from 2,5-dibromopyridine.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, d₆-DMSO): δ8.86 (d, J=2.3 Hz, 1H), 8.34 (dd, J=8.5, 2.3 Hz, 1H), 7.81 (dd, J=8.5, 0.5 Hz, 1H), 3.63-3.54 (m, 4H), 3.44-3.39 (m, 2H), 3.34-3.30 (m, 2H). MS m/z 321 (M+H⁺), 323 (M+2+H⁺).

1c. 2-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)-1-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-2,2-difluoroethanone (3-Br)

Process Development

Table 3 illustrates the effects of the relative proportions of each of the reagents and reactants, and the effect of varying the temperature had on the overall performance of the transformation as measured by the overall yield and purity of the reaction.

TABLE 3 Process Development for the Preparation of bromo-pyridine 3-Br Amide Grignard Weight HPLC (2b-Br) reagent Temp. Time yield purity Experiment (g) (Equiv.) (° C.) (hrs) (%) (%) 1 0.83 1 −20 to +22 10 days N/A 16 2 0.45 1.2  0 to 22 24 N/A 16 3 0.45 1.2 0 3 109 55 4 4.0 1.25 0 1.5 N/A 11 5 0.7 1.4  0 to 22 24 N/A 17 6 0.5 1.2  0 to 22 24 N/A 10 7 0.51 1.25 0 2.5 111 91 8 2.0 1.6 0 1.5 54 94 9 1.0 3.8 0 0.5 N/A 87 10 10 1.4 0 2 82 94 11 1.9 1.2  0 to 22 24 N/A 21 12 7.6 1.5 0 1.5 75 94 13 17.2 1.5 0 1.5 68 92

Typical Procedure for Converting 2b-Br to 3-Br

Grignard Formation:

Magnesium turnings (13.63 g, 0.56 moles) were charged to a 3-neck round bottom flask equipped with a condenser, thermocouple, addition funnel, and a stir bar. 540 mL of anhydrous tetrahydrofuran was added followed by 1-Bromo-2,4-difluorobenzene (16.3 mL, 0.144 moles). The contents were stirred at 22-25° C. and allowed to self-heat to 44° C. 1-Bromo-2,4-difluorobenzene (47 mL, 0.416 moles) was added to the reaction mixture at a rate that maintained the internal temperature between 40-44° C. during the addition. Once the addition was complete, the mixture was stirred for 2 hours and allowed to cool to about 25° during the stir time.

This mixture was held at 22-25° C. and used within 3-4 hours after the addition of 1-bromo-2,4-difluorobenzene was completed.

Coupling Reaction

Compound 2b-Br (120 g, 0.0374 moles) was charged to a 3-neck round bottom flask equipped with a condenser, thermocouple, and an overhead stirrer. 600 mL of anhydrous tetrahydrofuran was added. The flask contents were stirred at 22° C. until a clear solution was obtained. The solution was cooled to 0-5° C. The previously prepared solution of the Grignard reagent was then added slowly while maintaining the reaction temperature at 0-2° C. Reaction progress was monitored by HPLC. In-process check after 45 minutes showed <1% amide 2b-Br remaining. 2 N aqueous HCl (600 mL, 3 vol) was added slowly maintaining the temperature below 18° C. during the addition. The reaction was stirred for 30 minutes and the layers were separated. The aqueous layer was extracted with 240 mL MTBE. The combined organic layers were washed with 240 mL of aqueous 9% NaHCO₃ and 240 mL of aqueous 20% NaCl. The organic layer was dried over 28 g of MgSO4 and removed the solvent to yield 3-Br (137 g) as an amber oil.

HPLC purity (by area %)=˜90%; ¹H NMR (400 MHz, d₆-DMSO): δ8.80 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 8.41 (dd, J=8.3, 2.3 Hz, 1H), 8.00 (m, 2H), 7.45 (m, 1H), 7.30 (m, 1H). MS m/z 348 (M+H⁺), 350 (M+2+H⁺).

1d. 1-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-2,2-difluoro-2-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)ethanone (1-4)

Typical Procedure for Converting 3-Br to 1-4

Into a 250 mL reactor were charged THF (45 mL), water (9.8 mL), bromo-pyridine 3-Br (6.0 g, 17.2 mmoles), 4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylboronic acid (3.57 g, 17.3 mmoles), and Na₂CO₃ (4.55 g, 42.9 mmoles). The stirred mixture was purged with nitrogen for 15 min. The catalyst (Pd(dppf)Cl₂ as a CH₂Cl₂ adduct, 0.72 g, 0.88 mmoles) was added, and the reaction mixture was heated to 65° C. and held for 2.5 h. The heat was shut off and the reaction mixture was allowed to cool to 20-25° C. and stir overnight. HPLC analysis showed ˜90% ketone 1-4/hydrate and no unreacted bromo-pyridine 3-Br. MTBE (45 mL) and DI H₂O (20 mL) were added, and the quenched reaction was stirred for 45 min. The mixture was passed through a plug of Celite (3 g) to remove solids and was rinsed with MTBE (25 mL). The filtrate was transferred to a separatory funnel, and the aqueous layer drained. The organic layer was washed with 20% brine (25 mL). and split into two portions. Both were concentrated by rotovap to give oils (7.05 g and 1.84 g, 8.89 g total, >100% yield, HPLC purity ˜90%). The larger aliquot was used to generate hetone 1-4 as is. The smaller aliquot was dissolved in DCM (3.7 g, 2 parts) and placed on a pad of SiO₂ (5.5 g, 3 parts). The flask was rinsed with DCM (1.8 g), and the rinse added to the pad. The pad was eluted with DCM (90 mL), and the collected filtrate concentrated to give an oil (1.52 g). To this was added heptanes (6 g, 4 parts) and the mixture stirred. The oil crystallized, resulting in a slurry. The slurry was stirred at 20-25° C. overnight. The solid was isolated by vacuum filtration, and the cake washed with heptanes (˜1.5 mL). The cake was dried in the vacuum oven (40-45° C.) with a N₂ sweep. 0.92 g of ketone 1-4 was obtained, 60.1% yield (corrected for aliquot size), HPLC purity=99.9%.

Example 2 Preparation of 2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-3,3-difluoro-3-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)propane-1,2-diol (2-6a or 2-6c) 2a. 2-(2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoroallyl)-5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridine (2-5)

Typical Procedure for Converting 1-4 to 2-5

Ketone 1-4 (2.02 g, 0.0047 moles, 1 eq) was placed into a vial along with a stir bar and MTBE (4 mL). The mixture was stirred at 22° C. until all of the solids dissolved. MgSO₄ (0.3 g) was added and the mixture stirred at 22° C. for 5 h. The suspension was filtered through filter paper and the solids washed with MTBE (2 mL).

Methyltriphenylphosphonium bromide (5.04 g, 0.014 moles, 3 eq) was placed into a 3-neck 100 mL round bottom flask equipped with a thermocouple, condenser, septum and stir bar. MTBE (22 mL, 11 vol) was added and the slurry was cooled to 0° C. n-butyl lithium (6.0 mL of 1.6 M, 0.0096 moles, 2 eq) was added via syringe over 18 min, keeping the reaction temperature below 2° C. during the addition. The reaction was stirred for 90 min at 0° C. The 1-4 solution was slowly added via syringe, maintaining a reaction temperature below 2° C. during the addition. The reaction was stirred at 0° C. for 1 h and then warmed to 22° C. and stirred for about 16 h. Ethyl acetate (30 mL) and water (50 mL) were added to the reaction mixture, which was stirred for 30 min. The layers were allowed to separate. The organic layer was washed with 20% aqueous NaCl (25 mL) and the solvent removed to yield a dark oil. Heptane (50 mL) was added to the oil, and the mixture stirred for 2 h. The heptane was decanted, and additional heptane (50 mL) was added to the residue. The mixture was stirred for 1 h, and the heptane decanted. The heptane layers were combined, and the solvent removed to yield a yellow oil.

The oil was purified by column chromatography using silica gel (20 g) and CH₂Cl₂ as the eluent. The fractions containing olefin 2-5 were combined and the solvent removed to yield an oil. 0.52 g (24%) of olefin 2-5 was obtained, HPLC purity=94%.

2b. 2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-3,3-difluoro-3-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)propane-1,2-diol (2-6a or 2-6b)

Typical Procedure for Converting 2-5 to 2-6a or 2-6c

K₂OsO₄.H₂O (1.5 mg, 0.004 mmoles, 0.01 eq), (DHQD)₂AQN (14.8 mg, 0.017 mmoles, 0.04 eq), K₂CO₃ (0.33 g, 2.4 mmoles, 5.8 eq), and K₃FeCN₆ (0.75 g, 2.3 mmoles, 5.6 eq) were charged to a vial equipped with a stir bar. H₂O (7 mL) and t-BuOH (6 mL) were added and the mixture was stirred at 22° C. for 30 minutes. Olefin 2-5 was dissolved in t-BuOH (1 mL), and the solution charged to the reaction mixture. Methanesulfonamide (38 mg, 0.4 mmoles, 1 eq) was added and the mixture stirred at 22° C. for 48 hours. The reaction was quenched by the addition of water (10 mL) and MTBE (10 mL). The layers were separated, and the aqueous layer extracted with MTBE (10 mL). The organic layers were combined and washed with 10% aqueous sodium metabisulfite (5 mL), water (5 mL), and 20% aqueous NaCl (5 mL). The organic layer was checked by HPLC: 70% of the diol 2-6a or 2-6c was observed, ee by chiral HPLC=42.

Example 3 Preparation of 3-amino-2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoro-1-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)propan-2-ol (1-6* or 1-7*) 3a. 3-amino-2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoro-1-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)propan-2-ol (±1-6)

Process Development

Table 4 illustrates the effects of the relative proportions of each of the reagents and reactants, the effect of varying the solvent, and the effect of varying the temperature had on the overall performance of the transformation as measured by the overall yield and purity of the reaction.

TABLE 4 Process Development for the Preparation of ±1-6 NH₃ Solvent(s) Temp Time % ±1-6 Yield Entry (eq) (vol) (°C.) (h) (HPLC) (%)  1  7 + 7 MeOH (6.8) 20-25 → 60 19 75.7 —  2 15.5 MeOH (5) 61 18 74.1 61  3 20 MeOH (6.5) 50 19 81.8 —  4 40 MeOH (13) 50 19 84.3 —  5 20 IPA (22) 50 19 81.8 —  6 20 MeOH (6.5) 40 15 81.6 —  7 40 MeOH (13) 40 22 90.4 —  8 61 MeOH (19.5) 50 21 92.6 —  9 61 MeOH/H₂O (20) 50 21 81.1 — 10 61 MeOH/H₂O (20) 20-25 6 — — 11 61 MeOH/H₂O (31) 50 14.5 93.9 — 12 61¹ MeOH (20) 50 19 93.4 — 13 61 dioxane/H₂O 50 20 93.8 — 14 59 MeOH/H₂O (31) 50 15 93.6 60.8

Typical Procedure for Converting 5 to ±1-6

Epoxide 5 (2.17 g, 4.89 mmoles) was combined in a glass pressure tube with methanol (48 mL) and aqueous ammonia (19.5 mL). The tube was sealed and placed in an oil bath held at 54° C., with stirring. After 15 h the tube was removed from the bath, cooled, and the reaction sampled for HPLC, which showed 93.6% amino-alcohol ±1-6 and 6.0% di-adducts. To the reaction were added MTBE (48 mL) and 20% NaCl (20 mL). The layers were separated and the aqueous layer extracted with MTBE (20 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with H₂O (20 mL) and transferred to a rotovap flask. Heptane (20 mL) was added, and the solution was concentrated until 16.9 g remained in the flask. An H₂O layer appeared in the flask, and was pipetted out, leaving 12.8 g. Compound 1-6 seed was added, and the crystallizing mixture was stirred at 20-25° C. overnight. The flask was cooled in an ice bath for 2 h prior to filtration, and the isolated solid was washed with cold heptane (5 mL), and pulled dry on the funnel. After drying in a vacuum oven (40-45° C.) for several hours 1.37 g of amino-alcohol ±1-6 was obtained, 60.8% yield, HPLC purity=98.0%.

3b. 3-amino-2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoro-1-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)propan-2-ol (1-6* or 1-7*)

Process Development

Table 5 illustrates the initial screen performed surveying various chiral acid/solvent combinations. All entries in Table 9 were generated using 0.1 mmoles of amino-alcohol ±1-6, 1 equivalent of the chiral acid, and 1 ml of solvent.

TABLE 5 Resolution of ±1-6 (Initial Screen) Result (supernatant ee) MeOH EtOH IPA ACN Tartaric solution solid solid gel (63.7) (36.3) (87.1) Dibenzoyl TA solution solution solid gel (8.0) (24.5) Di-p-toluoyl TA solution solid solid gel (64.9) (89.6) (82.4) Malic solution solution solution solid (30.7) Mandelic solution solution solution solution CSA solution solid solid solid (0.5) (5.1) (12.8) Ascorbic solution solution solution solution Camphoric solution solution solution solid (57.2)

Since the best results from Table 5 were generated using tartaric acid and di-p-toluoyltartaric acid, Table 6 captures the results from a focused screen using these two chiral acids and various solvent combinations. All entries in Table 6 were performed with 0.2 mmoles of amino-alcohol ±1-6, 87 volumes of solvent, and each entry was exposed to heating at 51° C. for 1 h, cooled to RT, and stirred at RT for 24 h.

TABLE 6 Resolution of ±1-6 (Focused Screen) Conditions Mass (g) ee 77 mg (1 eq) Di-p-toluoyl tartaric acid/ACN 0.08 88.6 77 mg (1 eq) Di-p-toluoyl tartaric acid/IPA 0.08 79.1 42 mg (0.55 eq) Di-p-toluoyl tartaric acid/IPA 0.04 92.7 16.5 mg (0.55 eq) tartaric acid/ACN 0.07 29.9

Each of the three entries using di-p-toluoyltartaric acid in Table 6 resulted in higher levels of enantio-enrichment when compared to tartaric acid. As such, efforts to further optimize the enantio-enrichment were focusing on conditions using di-p-toluoyltartaric acid (Table 7).

TABLE 7 Resolution of ±1-6 Using DPPTA (D)- or (L)- Vol Entry DPTTA Solvent Solvent Yield (%) ee 1 L ACN 86 83 86.5 2 D ACN 91 108 49.6 3 D ACN 86 86 84.5 4 D ACN 22 161 16.0 5 D ACN/MeOH (9:1) 20 97 75.2 6 D ACN/MeOH (8:2) 20 54 96.3 7  D* ACN/MeOH (8:2) 15 40 18.2^(†) 8  D* ethanol 20 21 93.2 9 D ACN/MeOH (8:2) 15 80 74.0 10 D ACN/MeOH (8:2) 14 60 96.1 *0.6 equivalents used ^(†)ee sense was opposite from the other entries in the table (i.e., enantiomer of 1-6*)

Table 8 demonstrates that the enantiomeric excess obtained from DPPTA resolution (Table 7) can be further increased by slurrying in ACN/MeOH.

TABLE 8 Increases in ee of (D)-DPPTA Resolution Products by Reslurrying Initial Final Initial Purity Purity Entry Solvent Volumes ee (%) (%) Final ee 1 8:2 11 91.4 99.7 95.6 99.5 ACN/MeOH 2 8:2 13 78.1 98.6 — 97.3 ACN/MeOH 3 8:2 15 81.3 85.4 — 83.9 ACN/MeOH 4 8:2 13 74 99.0 — 97.5 ACN/MeOH 5 8:2 13 96.1 — 99.0 99.2 ACN/MeOH 6 8:2 12.7 91.5 95.7 96.2 93.5 ACN/MeOH 7 8:2 12.9 93.5 96.2 NA 94.7 ACN/MeOH

Typical Procedure for Converting ±1-6 to 1-6* or 1-7*

(This experimental procedure describes resolution of ±1-6, but conditions used for DPPTA resolution of 1-6 or 1-7 are essentially the same.)

Amino-alcohol ±1-6 (7.0 g, 15 mmoles) was dissolved in a mixture of acetonitrile (84 mL) and methanol (21 mL). (D)-DPTTA (5.89 g, 15 mmoles) was added, and the reaction was warmed to 50° C. and held for 2.5 h. The heat was then removed and the suspension was allowed to cool and stir at 20-25° C. for 65 h. The suspension was cooled in an ice bath and stirred for an additional 2 h. Solid was isolated by vacuum filtration, and the cake was washed with cold 8:2 ACN/MeOH (35 mL). After drying at 50° C., 5.18 g of 1-6* or 1-7*/DPPTA salt was isolated, HPLC purity=99.0, ee=74.

The 1-6* or 1-7*/DPPTA salt (5.18 g) was combined with 8:2 ACN/MeOH (68 mL) and the suspension was heated to 50° C. and held for 20 min. After cooling to 20-25° C. the mixture was stirred for 16 h. Solids were isolated by vacuum filtration, and the cake washed with cold 8:2 ACN/MeOH (30 mL), and pulled dry on the funnel. 2.82 g of 1-6* or 1-7*/DPPTA salt was obtained, 44.4% yield (from crude ±1-6), ee=97.5. The resulting solids were freebased to provide 1-6* or 1-7* with the same achiral and chiral purity as the DPPTA salt.

Example 4 Preparation of 2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoro-3-(1H-tetrazol-1-yl)-1-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)propan-2-ol (1 or 1a)

The procedure used to generate compound 1 or 1a is as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,426,531. Table 9 illustrates the efficient and quantitative nature of this procedure as performed on amino-alcohol 1-6* or 1-7* produced from both the TMS-cyanohydrin method and the TMSI-epoxidation method.

TABLE 9 Formation of Compound 1 or 1a 1-6* or 1-6* or 1-6* or 1-7* Cmpd 1 or 1a 1-7* 1-7* Purity Purity Yield Entry Origin Amt (g) (HPLC %) (HPLC %) (%) 1 TMSI- 1 99.0 97.4 96.5 epoxidation Method 2 TMS- 1 98.0 97.9 99.2 cyanohydrin Method

Example 5 2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoro-3-(1H-tetrazol-1-yl)-1-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)propan-2-ol benzenesulfonate (1 or 1a-BSA)

Typical Procedure for Converting 1 or 1a to 1 or 1a-BSA

46.6 g of compound 1 or 1a was dissolved in ethylacetate (360 ml). The solution was filtered through a glass microfiber filter and placed in a 2 L reaction flask equipped with an overhead stirrer, condenser, and a J-Kem thermocouple. Pharma-grade benzenesulfonic acid (BSA, 14.39 g, 1 eq) was dissolved in ethyl acetate (100 ml). The BSA solution was filtered through a glass microfiber filter and added to the stirred 1 or 1a solution in one portion. The mixture was warmed to 60-65° C.; precipitation of the 1 or 1a/BSA salt occurred during the warm up period. The slurry was held for 60 minutes at 60-65° C. The suspension was allowed to slowly cool to 22° C. and was stirred at 20-25° C. for 16 hours. n-Heptane (920 ml) was charged in one portion and the suspension was stirred at 22° C. for an additional 90 minutes. The slurry was filtered and the collected solids washed with n-heptane (250 ml). The isolated solids were placed in a vacuum oven at 50° C. for 16 hours. 52.26 g (86% yield) of 1 or 1a benzenesulfonate was obtained.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6+D₂0): 89.16 (s, 1H), 8.95 (d, J=2.1 Hz, 1H), 8.26 (dd, J=8.2, 2.3 Hz, 1H), 7.96-7.89 (m, 2H), 7.66-7.61 (m, 2H), 7.59 (dd, J=8.3, 0.4 Hz, 1H), 7.53 (br d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H), 7.38-7.15 (m, 5H), 6.90 (dt, J=8.3, 2.5 Hz, 1H), 5.69 (d, J=14.8 Hz, 1H), 5.15 (d, J=15.2 Hz, 1H).

Further results are in Table 10.

TABLE 10 Formation of 1 or 1a-BSA 1 or 1a Purity 1 or 1a 1 or 1a-BSA 1 or 1a-BSA 1 or 1a-BSA (%) (% ee) Yield Purity (%) ee 97.9 95.9 84% 98.2 97.1

Example 6 3-amino-1-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)-2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoropropan-2-ol (4b-Br)

Typical Procedure for Converting 4-Br to 4b-Br

Crude epoxide 4-Br (54.4 g, 0.15 moles) was placed into a Schott autoclave bottle equipped with a stir bar. 550 mL of MeOH was added to the bottle and stirred for 90 minutes at 22-25° C. Concentrated NH₄OH (550 mL, 7.98 moles, 53 equiv) was added to the epoxide 4-Br solution. The bottle was sealed and placed in an oil bath at 55° C. The mixture was stirred at 55° C. for 17 hours. The bottle was removed from the oil bath and cooled to 22-25° C. In-process HPLC showed <1% epoxide 4-Br remaining. The solvent was removed via rotary evaporation until 362 g (37%) of the reaction mass remained. 500 mL of MTBE was added and cooled the mixture to 8° C. 500 mL of 6N HCl was slowly added maintaining the reaction temperature between 8-12° C. during the addition. After stirring for 10 minutes, the layers were separated. The MTBE layer was extracted with 350 mL of 6N HCl. The combined aqueous layers were washed with 250 mL MTBE and 2×250 mL heptane. MTBE, 250 mL, was added to the aqueous layer and the mixture was cooled to 2° C. 344 g of KOH was dissolved in 500 mL of water. The KOH solution was slowly added to the reaction mixture over one hour while maintaining the temperature at <19° C. After stirring for 15 minutes, the layers were separated. The aqueous layer was extracted with 250 mL MTBE. The combined organic layers were washed with 250 mL of aqueous 20% NaCl and the solvent was removed to yield ±4b-Br as a dark oil. Weight of crude amino alcohol ±4b-Br=46.0 g. HPLC purity (by area %)=92%; ¹H NMR (400 MHz, d₆-DMSO): δ8.67 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 8.15 (dd, J=8.6, 2.4 Hz, 1H), 7.46 (m, 1H), 7.40 (dd, J=8.5, 0.7 Hz, 1H), 7.10 (m, 1H), 7.00 (m, 1H), 3.37 (dd, J=13.7, 2.1 Hz, 1H), 3.23 (dd, J=13.7, 2.7, 1H). MS m/z 379 (M+H⁺), 381 (M+2+H⁺).

Example 7 3-amino-1-(5-bromopyridin-2-yl)-2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoropropan-2-ol (4b-Br or 4c-Br)

Typical Procedure for Converting 4-Br to 4b-Br or 4c-Br

Crude amino alcohol ±4b-Br (42.4, 0.11 moles) was dissolved in 425 mL of 8:2 IPA: CH₃CN. The solution was charged to a 1 L 3-neck round bottom flask equipped with a condenser, overhead stirrer and a thermocouple. Charged di-p-toluoyl-L-tartaric acid (21.6 g, 0.056 moles, 0.5 equiv) to the flask and warmed the contents to 52° C. The reaction mixture was stirred at 52° C. for 5 hours, cooled to 22-25° C. and stirred for 12 hours. The slurry was cooled to 5-10° C. and stirred for 90 minutes. The mixture was filtered and collected solids washed with 80 mL of cold CH₃CN. The solids were dried in a vacuum oven 45-50° C. Weight of amino alcohol/DPTTA salt=17.4 g

Chemical purity by HPLC (area %)=98.5%; Chiral HPLC=98.0% ee.

13.60 g of the amino alcohol/DPTTA salt was placed into a 250 mL flask with a stir bar and to this was added 100 mL of MTBE and 100 mL of 10% aqueous K₂CO₃ solution. The reaction was stirred until complete dissolution was observed. The layers were separated and the aqueous layer was extracted with 50 mL of MTBE. The combined MTBE layers were washed with 50 mL of 20% aqueous NaCl and the solvent removed to yield 8.84 (98%) of 4b-Br or 4c-Br as a light yellow oil.

Example 8 3-amino-2-(2,4-difluorophenyl)-1,1-difluoro-1-(5-(4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl)pyridin-2-yl)propan-2-ol (1-6* or 1-7*)

Typical Procedure for Converting 4b-Br or 4c-Br to 1-6* or 1-7*

Amino alcohol 4b-Br or 4c-Br (8.84 g, 0.023 moles, 1 equiv) was dissolved in 73 mL of n-propanol. The solution was transferred to a 250 mL 3-neck round bottom flask equipped with a condenser, thermocouple, stir bar and septum. 17 mL of water was added and stirred at 22-25° C. for 5 minutes. To the reaction was added K₂CO₃ (9.67 g, 0.07 moles, 3 equiv), 4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenylboronic acid (5.76 g, 0.028 moles, 1.2 equiv.) and Pd(dppf)Cl₂ as a CH₂Cl₂ adduct (0.38 g, 0.47 mmoles, 0.02 equiv) to the flask. After the mixture was purged with nitrogen for 10 minutes, the reaction was then warmed to 85-87° C. and stirred at 85-87° C. for 16 hours. HPLC analysis showed <1% of the amino alcohol 4b-Br or 4c-Br remaining. The mixture was cooled to 22-25° C., then 115 mL of MTBE and 115 mL of water were added and stirred for 30 minutes. The layers were separated and the organic layer was washed with 2×60 mL of 20% aqueous NaCl. The solvent was removed to yield 12.96 g (121% yield) of 1-6* or 1-7* as a crude dark oil. It should be noted that the oil contains residual solvent, Pd and boronic acid impurity.

¹H NMR (400 MHz, d₆-DMSO): δ8.90 (d, J=2.2 Hz, 1H), 8.22 (dd, J=8.3, 2.3 Hz, 1H), 7.91 (m, 2H), 7.54 (m, 4H), 7.14 (m, 1H), 7.02 (m, 1H), 3.41 (m, 1H), 3.27 (dd, J=14.0, 2.7, 1H). MS m/z 461 (M+H⁺)

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

The contents of all references (including literature references, issued patents, published patent applications, and co-pending patent applications) cited throughout this application are hereby expressly incorporated herein in their entireties by reference.

EQUIVALENTS

Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents of the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended with be encompassed by the following claims. 

What is claimed:
 1. A process to prepare a compound of formula IV:

comprising olefination of a compound of formula III:

to provide a compound of formula IV; wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.
 2. A process to prepare a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof:

comprising dihydroxylation of a compound of formula IV:

to provide a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof; wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.
 3. A process to prepare a compound of formula VI or VIa, or a mixture thereof:

comprising activation of the primary alcohol of a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof:

to a provide a compound of formula VI or VIa, or a mixture thereof; wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl; and Y is —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)— alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen.
 4. A process to prepare a compound of formula VII or VIIa, or a mixture thereof:

comprising ring closure of a compound of formula VI or VIa, or a mixture thereof:

to provide a compound of formula VII or VIIa, or a mixture thereof; wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl; and Y is —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)— alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen.
 5. A process to prepare compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof:

comprising converting a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof:

to compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof; wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.
 6. The process of claim 5, further comprising reacting a compound of formula IV:

under asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions to provide a compound of formula V or Va, or a mixture thereof:

wherein the asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions comprise: (i) AD-mix alpha or AD-mix beta; or (ii) a first oxidant in catalytic amount, a second oxidant in stoichiometric amount, a base, and a chiral ligand; and each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.
 7. The process of claim 6, wherein: (i) the first oxidant in catalytic amount is OsO₄ or K₂OsO₂(OH)₄; (ii) the second oxidant in stoichiometric amount is K₃Fe(CN)₆ or N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide; (iii) the base is NaHCO₃, Na₂CO₃, Cs₂CO₃, or K₂CO₃; and (iv) the chiral ligand is selected from the group consisting of (DHQ)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂AQN, (DHQ)₂AQN, (DHQD)₂PYR, and (DHQ)₂PYR.
 8. The process of claim 7, wherein the chiral ligand is selected from the group consisting of (DHQ)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂AQN, and (DHQD)₂PYR.
 9. The process of claim 6, further comprising the addition of MeSO₂NH₂.
 10. The process of claim 5, further comprising converting a compound of formula VI or VIa, or a mixture thereof:

to a compound of formula VII or VIIa, or a mixture thereof:

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; and each R₂ is independently 1,

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.
 11. The process of claim 6, further comprising: (i) activating the primary alcohol of 2-6a or 2-6c,

 or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula 2-7a or 2-7c,

 or a mixture thereof; wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; (ii) ring-closing of a compound of 2-7a or 2-7c,

 or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide 5* or 5b*,

 or a mixture thereof; (iii) ring-opening epoxide 5* or 5b*, F or

 or a mixture thereof, to provide amino-alcohol 1-6* or 1-7*,

 or a mixture thereof; and (iv) forming the tetrazole of amino-alcohol 1-6* or 1-7*,

 or a mixture thereof, to provide compound 1 or 1a,

 or a mixture thereof.
 12. The process of claim 11, wherein Y is mesylate or tosylate.
 13. The process of claim 6, further comprising: (i) activating the primary alcohol 2-6b or 2-6d,

 or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula 2-7b or 2-7d,

 or a mixture thereof; (ii) ring-closing a compound of 2-7b or 2-7d,

 or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide 4*or 4c*,

 or a mixture thereof; (iii) ring-opening epoxide 4*or 4c*,

 or a mixture thereof, to provide amino-alcohol 4b or 4c,

 or a mixture thereof; (iv) arylating amino-alcohol 4b or 4c,

 or a mixture thereof, to provide aryl-pyridine 1-6* or 1-7*,

 or a mixture thereof; and (v) forming the tetrazole of amino-alcohol 1-6* or 1-7*,

 or a mixture thereof, to provide compound 1 or 1a,

 or a mixture thereof; wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; and each R₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.
 14. A compound of formula IV:

wherein each R₂ is independently

halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl.
 15. A compound of formula VI* or VIa*, or a mixture thereof:

wherein each R₂ is independently

 halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, or —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl; each Y₁ is independently OH, —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 16. The process of any one of claim 11 or 13, further comprising: (i) combining compound 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof, a sulfonic acid

and a crystallization solvent or crystallization solvent mixture; (ii) diluting the mixture from step (i) with a crystallization co-solvent or crystallization co-solvent mixture; and (iii) isolating a compound of formula IX or IXa,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each Z is independently aryl, substituted aryl, alkyl, or substituted alkyl.
 17. The process of claim 16, wherein Z is phenyl, p-tolyl, methyl, or ethyl.
 18. The process of claim 16, wherein the crystallization solvent or crystallization solvent mixture is ethyl acetate, isopropyl acetate, ethanol, methanol, or acetonitrile, or combinations thereof.
 19. The process of claim 16, wherein the crystallization co-solvent or crystallization co-solvent mixture is pentane, methyl tert-butylether, hexane, heptane, or toluene, or combinations thereof.
 20. The process of claim 16, wherein forming the trimethylsilyl-cyanohydrin is performed in the presence of a chiral catalyst.
 21. A compound of formula XI:

wherein o is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₄ is independently H or halo; R₅ is H or fluoro; R₆ is H or fluoro; R₁₁ is halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 22. A process to prepare compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof:

comprising converting a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

to compound 1 or 1a, or a mixture thereof; wherein each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 23. The process of claim 22, further comprising reacting a compound of formula XI:

under asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions to provide a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

wherein the asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions comprise: (i) AD-mix alpha or AD-mix beta; or (ii) a first oxidant in catalytic amount, a second oxidant in stoichiometric amount, a base, and a chiral ligand; and each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; and each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 24. The process of claim 23, wherein: (i) the first oxidant in catalytic amount is OsO₄ or K₂OsO₂(OH)₄; (ii) the second oxidant in stoichiometric amount is K₃Fe(CN)₆ or N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide; (iii) the base is NaHCO₃, Na₂CO₃, Cs₂CO₃, or K₂CO₃; and (iv) the chiral ligand is selected from the group consisting of (DHQ)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂AQN, (DHQ)₂AQN, (DHQD)₂PYR, and (DHQ)₂PYR.
 25. The process of claim 24, wherein the chiral ligand is selected from the group consisting of (DHQ)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂PHAL, (DHQD)₂AQN, and (DHQD)₂PYR.
 26. The process of claim 23, further comprising the addition of MeSO₂NH₂.
 27. The process of claim 22, further comprising converting a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

to a compound of formula XIX or XIXa, or a mixture thereof:

wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 28. The process of claim 27, further comprising: (i) activating the primary alcohol of XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof; (ii) ring-closing of a compound of XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof; (iii) ring-opening epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide aryl-pyridine 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof; and (iv) forming the tetrazole of amino-alcohol aryl-pyridine 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof, to provide compound 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉; each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 29. The process of claim 28, wherein Y is mesylate or tosylate.
 30. The process of claim 27, further comprising: (i) activating the primary alcohol of XVII or XVIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula XIX or XIXa,

or a mixture thereof; (ii) ring-closing a compound of XIX or XIXa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof; (iii) ring-opening epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide alcohol XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof; (iv) arylating alcohol XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide aryl-pyridine 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof; and (v) forming the tetrazole of aryl-pyridine 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof, to provide compound 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉; each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 31. A process to prepare a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, the method comprising converting a compound of formula XI,

to a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa: wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 32. The process of claim 31, further comprising reacting a compound of formula XI:

under asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions to provide a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

wherein the asymmetric dihydroxylation conditions comprise: (i) AD-mix alpha or AD-mix beta; or (ii) a first oxidant in catalytic amount, a second oxidant in stoichiometric amount, a base, and a chiral ligand; and each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 33. The process of claim 32 further comprising converting a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa, or a mixture thereof:

to provide a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

 or a mixture thereof; wherein each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; and each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 34. The process of claim 31 further comprising: (i) arylating olefin XI,

to provide aryl-pyridine XXV,

(ii) dihydroxylating aryl-pyridine XXV,

to provide a compound of formula XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof; (iii) activating the primary alcohol of XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof; (iv) ring-closing of a compound of XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; o is 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 35. The process of claim 31 further comprising: (i) dihydroxylating a compound of formula XI,

to provide a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa,

or a mixture thereof; (ii) arylating a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa

or a mixture thereof, to afford a compound of formula XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof; (iii) activating the primary alcohol of XX or XXa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide a compound of formula XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof; (iv) ring-closing of a compound of XXI or XXIa,

or a mixture thereof, to provide epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 36. The process of claim 31 further comprising: (i) dihydroxylating a compound of formula XI,

to provide a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa,

(ii) activating the primary alcohol of a compound of formula XVII or XVIIa,

or a mixture thereof to afford a compound of formula XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof; (iii) ring-closing of a compound of formula XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to afford a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof; and (iv) arylating a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof to afford a compound of formula XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each Y is independently —OSO₂-alkyl, —OSO₂-substituted alkyl, —OSO₂-aryl, —OSO₂-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, or halogen; each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 37. The process of any one of claims 34-36 further comprising: (i) ring-opening epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to afford 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉; each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 38. The process of any one of claims 31-33 further comprising: (i) ring-opening epoxide XXII or XXIIa,

or a mixture thereof, to afford a compound of formula XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉; each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 39. The process of claim 37 further comprising: (i) forming the tetrazole of a compound of 12 or 12a,

or R or a mixture thereof, to afford 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉; each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 40. The process of claim 38 further comprising: (i) arylating a compound of formula of XXIII or XXIIIa,

or a mixture thereof to afford a compound of formula 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉; each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; each R₁₁ is independently halo, —O(C═O)-alkyl, —O(C═O)-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)-aryl, —O(C═O)-substituted aryl, —O(C═O)—O-alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted alkyl, —O(C═O)—O-aryl, —O(C═O)—O-substituted aryl, —O(SO₂)-alkyl, —O(SO₂)-substituted alkyl, —O(SO₂)-aryl, —O(SO₂)-substituted aryl, or phenyl optionally substituted with 1) alkyl or substituted alkyl, 2) aryl or substituted aryl, 3) heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, 4) haloalkyl, 5) alkoxy or substituted alkoxy, 6) aryloxy or substituted aryloxy, or 7) haloalkoxy; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl.
 41. The process of claim 40 further comprising: (i) forming the tetrazole of a compound of formula 12 or 12a,

or a mixture thereof to afford 1 or 1a,

or a mixture thereof; wherein each n is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each o is independently 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; each R₃ is independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, substituted heteroaryl, haloalkyl, alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, aryloxy, substituted aryloxy, and haloalkoxy; each R₄ is independently H or halo; each R₅ is independently H or fluoro; each R₆ is independently H or fluoro; each R₇ is independently N₃, NHR₈, or NR₈R₉; each R₈ and R₉ are each independently H, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl, or substituted heteroaryl; and each R₁₂ is independently H, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted cycloalkyl, or optionally substituted hetrocyclyl. 